Among the different enzymes, amylase possesses the highest potential for use in different industrial and medicinal purposes. The involvement of modern technologies, such as white biotechnology, pinch technology, and green technology, will hasten its industrial production on a large scale. This will be further facilitated by implementation of established fermentation technologies with appropriate microbial species bacteria or fungi and complementation of other biotechnological aspects.
The technologies of high-throughput screening and processing with efficient microbial species, along with the ultimate coupling of genetic engineering of amylase-producing strains, will all help in enhancing amylase production for industrial and medicinal applications. The authors declare that there is no conflict of interests regarding the publication of this paper.
This is an open access article distributed under the Creative Commons Attribution License , which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited. Article of the Year Award: Outstanding research contributions of , as selected by our Chief Editors. Read the winning articles. Journal overview. Special Issues. Gopinath , 1,2 Periasamy Anbu , 3 M.
Academic Editor: Nikolai V. Received 29 Oct Accepted 27 Nov Published 09 Feb Abstract Amylase is an important and indispensable enzyme that plays a pivotal role in the field of biotechnology. Figure 1. Three-dimensional structures of amylases. Figure 2. Scheme for the hydrolysis of starch by amylase.
Starch is a polysaccharide made up of simple sugars glucose. Upon the action of amylase, either glucose a monosaccharide or maltose a disaccharide with two glucose molecules is released. Figure 3. The positions of four conserved sequence patterns are indicated with dashed boxes [ 18 ]. Figure 4. A flowchart for microbial amylase. Figure 5. Recombinant DNA technology for amylase production. The steps involve selection of an efficient amylase gene, insertion of the gene into an appropriate vector system, transformation into an efficient bacterial system to produce a higher amount of recombinant mRNA, and overproduction of amylase from the bacterial system.
Figure 6. Mutant library screening. Selection of the best variants is a more successful technique for the ultimate application in recombinant amylase production.
Figure 7. Amylase production on agar plate. In this solid-based method, the starch-containing agar plate is pinpoint-inoculated with the microorganism at the center of the Petri plate. After an appropriate incubation period, flooding the plate with iodine solution reveals a dark bluish color on the substrate region. The clear region around the inoculum indicates the zone of hydrolysis. Figure 8. Efficient application of amylase. Differences between the conventional methods of amylase utilization against alginate bead-encapsulated amylase are shown.
References K. View at: Google Scholar S. Gopinath, P. Anbu, T. Lakshmipriya, and A. Lakshmipriya et al. Anbu and B. Gopinath, A. Hilda, T. Priya, and G. Lakshmi Priya, G. Annadurai, and P. View at: Google Scholar T. Kumarevel, S. Hilda, N. Gautham, and M. Anbu, S. Lakshmi Priya, and G. Mathivanan, and G. Hussain, F. Siddique, M. Mahmood, and S. Anbu, and A. Anbu, A. Hilda, and S.
Gupta, P. Gigras, H. Mohapatra, V. Goswami, and B. View at: Google Scholar J. Nielsen and T. Chai, N. Othman, A. Teh et al. Sundarram and T. While many separate enzymes are needed to interact with the food we eat, there are three amylase, protease, and lipase which are associated with the primary macronutrients in our diet; carbohydrates, proteins, and fats respectively.
The pancreas is the primary organ responsible for the production and release of amylase, protease, and lipase. As a food bolus passes through the digestive tract, it stimulates the release of these important enzymes to drive the efficient breakdown of carbohydrates, proteins, and fats into smaller particles which can be absorbed later in the digestive process and eventually used throughout the body.
In addition to the pancreas, amylase is also released in saliva in the mouth and is known as salivary amylase. While the digestive process relies on much more than just amylase, protease, and lipase for the complete and efficient digestion of food eaten, they are a core component and great place to start when looking at how digestive enzymes contribute to gastrointestinal health.
Amylase is responsible for the breaking of the bonds in starches, polysaccharides, and complex carbohydrates into easier to absorb simple sugars. This is one of the major reasons that it is so important for people to take time while eating and thoroughly chew their food. As the starches, polysaccharides, and complex carbohydrates continue through the digestive tract, they are further broken down from additional amylase released from the pancreas into the proximal small intestine.
Another important enzyme to the efficient digestion of food eaten is protease. It is responsible for the primary breakdown of proteins and polypeptides from animals and plants and for proline dipeptides from gluten and casein. Proteases are released by the pancreas into the proximal small intestine, where they mix with proteins already denatured by gastric secretions and break them down into amino acids, the building blocks of protein, which will eventually be absorbed and used throughout the body.
While amylase and protease do a great job of breaking down carbohydrates and proteins, the body needs another enzyme for the breakdown of fats, oils, and triglycerides. This is where lipase functions. Lipase is necessary for the full digestion of fats to their smaller fatty acid components. At times, food may not be digested fully as it passes through the digestive tract. Amylase levels will be elevated if the pancreatic duct that allows amylase to enter the small bowel is blocked by a gallstone or inflammation in the area.
Macroamylasemia develops when macroamylase is present in the blood. Macroamylase is amylase attached to a protein. Gastroenteritis is an inflammation of the gastrointestinal tract that can cause diarrhea, vomiting, and abdominal cramps. It can be caused by bacteria or a virus.
A peptic ulcer is a condition where the lining of the stomach or intestine becomes inflamed, causing ulcers , or sores, to develop. This condition is considered a medical emergency.
Fallopian tubes connect your ovaries to your uterus. A tubal pregnancy occurs when the fertilized egg, or embryo, is in one of your fallopian tubes instead of in your uterus.
This is also called an ectopic pregnancy , which is a pregnancy that takes place outside of the uterus. Other conditions can also cause elevated amylase counts, including vomiting from any cause, heavy alcohol use, salivary gland infections , and intestinal blockages. Kidney disease is caused by many medical problems, but the most common are high blood pressure and diabetes mellitus.
You should discuss your test results with your doctor. They can help you understand the results and what they mean for your health. Depending on your results, further testing may need to be done. Blood tests can help determine the cause of severe abdominal pain. Checking amylase and lipase levels can help determine if you have pancreatitis. Acute pancreatitis is an inflammation in the pancreas, which causes pain and swelling in the upper left side of the abdomen, nausea, and burping.
In cases of chronic pancreatitis, your diet might have a lot to do with what's causing the problem. Researchers have identified certain foods you can…. Bacterial infections are common causes of gastroenteritis.
Also called food poisoning, these infections are caused by poor hygiene or eating…. Viral gastroenteritis, also known as the stomach flu, is an inflammation of the stomach and intestines.
It can be caused by many different viruses…. Stomach ulcers are painful sores in the lining of the stomach.
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