Marijuana can act as a depressant, stimulant, and hallucinogen. Learn more about the effects of each type of drug here. We also cover the risks and…. Find out about the different types of antidepressants, how they work, any adverse effects, when you can take them, and the alternatives available. Depression is a common and serious mental health condition that can often take its toll on relationships.
However, supporting a partner with…. Depression after surgery: What you need to know. Medically reviewed by Timothy J. Legg, Ph. Symptoms Causes Tips Surgeries with a high risk Getting help Takeaway Many people experience depression after surgery. Symptoms of depression. Share on Pinterest Depression may cause fatigue, feelings of hopelessness, and stress.
Share on Pinterest Talking with loved ones and healthcare professionals can help reduce anxiety before and after surgery. Surgeries with a high risk of depression.
Getting help. Share on Pinterest If a person is experiencing depression after surgery, they should try to speak to their doctor. Scientists identify new cause of vascular injury in type 2 diabetes. Adolescent depression: Could school screening help? Related Coverage. Recognizing the hidden signs of depression. What is depression and what can I do about it? Is marijuana a depressant? What to know. Medically reviewed by Alan Carter, PharmD.
All about antidepressants. Therefore, we postulated whether propofol could induce anxiety-like behaviours in these mice, basing on the above behavioural results in these mice. We used the open field assay to test the anxiety level of these mice. As shown in Figure 3 a , propofol treatment effectively reduced the total time mice spent on the center area in the open field.
And we also measured another important parameter of the test, the total travel distance of the mice. As we expected, propofol injection significantly decreased the travel distance of mice in the 5 min test session compared to control mice Figure 3 b. Next, we investigated the anxiety-like behaviours of these mice in elevated plus maze assay.
We found that mice exposed to propofol showed significant less time spent in open arms Figure 4 , which was in line with the results from the open field test. A recent study suggested the involvement of neuroinflammation in postoperative delirium-like cognitive deficits [ 13 ].
We tested whether propofol could impact the expression level of IL-6 in the brain tissues of these mice. To achieve the conclusion, we performed ELISA assay in the brain tissues hippocampus and cortex to assess the level of IL-6 in mice with or without propofol treatment. Our results demonstrated that propofol treatment in this condition could be able to upregulate the expression level of this cytokine in the brains of mice exposed to propofol Figure 5.
This result indicated that propofol might cause the anxiety- and depressive-like behaviours in mice by affecting the inflammatory response in their brains. Last, we probed the possible cellular and molecular mechanisms that might be responsible for the behavioural changes in these mice exposed to propofol. We tested whether glial cells were influenced by the propofol treatment by looking at the microglial maker protein, CD11b.
With a western blot study, we found the expression level of CD11b was reduced in the brains of mice with propofol treatment Figure 6 a , which suggested that microglial function might be regulated by the propofol treatment. Meanwhile, the expression of the presynaptic protein SYP was not affected by the propofol treatment Figure 6 c. Our western blot results demonstrated that propofol treatment caused the increased expression level of p-STAT-3 without affecting the expression of total STAT-3 Figure 6 b.
These findings implicated that propofol might influence the microglial cell function and enhance the phosphorylation of STAT-3 while inducing the anxiety- and depressive-like behavioural performances in mice. Cognitive and memory dysfunctions have been fairly studied, but the postoperative mood fluctuation has not attracted enough attention so far. Some evidences supported the idea that there were significant mood changes that occurred in the patients who are exposed to surgery and anaesthetic treatment.
Here, we tested a new hypothesis that anaesthetic treatment per se may be enough to significantly affect the mood status in animals that underwent the single dose of anaesthetic treatment without an accompanying surgical procedure. We used propofol as the representative anaesthetic compound and intraperitoneally injected it to the mice. In the following days, a series of depressive and anxiety behaviours were performed to observe the mood changes in the mice.
We found that there were significant differences on the behavioural performances between these mice with or without propofol exposure. Since these propofol-induced effects were sustained for a significant time while even after the medication was took off, we postulated that these effects were not the acute anaesthetic influence but were mediated by other systems in the CNS.
Neuroinflammation has been found to be one of the major factors that contribute to the depression and other mood changes in the CNS [ 14 ]. Here, we asked whether a microglial cell was activated in the brain of mice after propofol exposure. The microglial cell protein marker, CD11b that is one of the common marker proteins to demonstrate the activation of microglia, was investigated with western blot.
Surprisingly, our results indicated that propofol could inhibit the protein level of CD11b. The plausible explanation here is propofol could inhibit the CD11b protein expression regardless of whether the microglial cells were activated or not. The prominent advancement of propofol may be important for the potential treatment of alleviating the microglial overactivation in some pathological conditions of the CNS, such as trauma, stroke, and multiple sclerosis.
We also looked into the effect of propofol on the synaptic proteins that are very important fundamental factors behind the behavioural performances of animals [ 15 ]. Interestingly, although propofol could affect the microglial cell function, it seemed not to impact the synaptic protein expression level.
These findings are not in line with some previous reports [ 16 ]. The possible reason may be due to the difference of time window when the proteins were collected after the propofol was given. But our findings still suggested that propofol might have a different impact on neuron and other glial cells. In the future study, the effects of propofol on glial and neuronal cells should be elaborated individually.
We found propofol treatment could induce an upregulation of IL-6 in the mouse brain. These findings were in line with the results of propofol on the microglial cell function. While inhibiting the CD11b component, propofol may activate the relevant signaling pathways that are important for the microglial cell activation. Collectively, our study suggested propofol was able to influence the microglial cell function and exacerbate inflammatory response in the CNS.
The cellular and molecular reaction might be responsible for the behavioural changes in these mice that are administrated with the single dose of propofol. Our study emphasized the important role of anaesthetics on the impact of mood changes after operation, but mood could be significantly impacted by many factors, including inflammation [ 17 ] that is quite often seen in the patients during and after surgery.
Therefore, a series of well-designed, systemic studies on an animal model which involved not only the anaesthetics but also the surgery procedure are warranted for the future. The data used to support the findings of this study are available from the corresponding author upon request. This is an open access article distributed under the Creative Commons Attribution License , which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited.
Article of the Year Award: Outstanding research contributions of , as selected by our Chief Editors. Read the winning articles. Journal overview. Special Issues. Guest Editor: Sun-Young Hwang. Received 26 Feb Accepted 27 May Published 10 Jun Abstract Many patients experience excellent physical recoveries after surgery; however, there are some of them who from suffer mood fluctuation, even depression.
Introduction Many patients who undergo general anaesthesia or surgery experience some form of postsurgical depression, especially during the six months following an invasive procedure [ 1 ]. Materials and Methods 2. Open Field A square wood box was used here for the open field test as previously described [ 9 ]. Tail Suspension Test For the tail suspension test, the procedures were performed as previously reported [ 10 ]. Learn how to manage pain, swelling, and bruising after a total knee replacement here.
Being active and exercising regularly is beneficial to most people, but especially those with MDD. These motivating reasons are bound to provide the…. Health Conditions Discover Plan Connect. Mental Health. Understanding Postsurgery Depression. Medically reviewed by Timothy J. Legg, Ph. Causes Knee surgery Heart surgery Symptoms Coping Helping a loved one Takeaway Recovering from surgery can take time and involve discomfort. Depression, knee surgery, and osteoarthritis. Depression after heart surgery.
Symptoms of postsurgery depression. Coping with postsurgery depression. How to help a family member with postsurgery depression. Read this next. Mental Health Resources. How to Fight Depression: 20 Things to Try. Here Are 7 Ways to Show Support. Knee Replacement and Your State of Mind.
Medically reviewed by Deborah Weatherspoon, Ph. Medically reviewed by Debra Rose Wilson, Ph. Medically reviewed by Timothy Gossett, M.
Depression and Diet.
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